The Nigerian Civil War, commonly known as the Biafran War, was a devastating conflict that unfolded from July 6, 1967, to January 15, 1970. It was marked by deep-seated ethnic tensions, political upheaval, and significant international involvement. The war had profound and lasting impacts on Nigeria, particularly on the Igbo people of the southeastern region.(en.wikipedia.org)
Origins of the Conflict
Ethnic Tensions and Political Upheaval
At the dawn of independence in 1960, Nigeria emerged as a fragile federation composed of over 250 ethnic groups. Among these, three were considered dominant due to their population size and regional influence:
- The Hausa-Fulani in the northern region,
- The Yoruba in the western region, and
- The Igbo in the eastern region.
Each group had distinct languages, religious traditions, political systems, and colonial experiences. The colonial British system of indirect rule had deepened regional divisions by reinforcing ethnic-based administrative units. This foundation of regionalism and ethnic loyalty set the stage for post-independence tensions.
The first major political rupture came on January 15, 1966, when a group of young army officers—mostly of Igbo origin—led a coup d’état that overthrew the civilian government. The coup resulted in the assassination of key political leaders, including:
- Prime Minister Abubakar Tafawa Balewa (North)
- Ahmadu Bello, Premier of the Northern Region
- Samuel Akintola, Premier of the Western Region
- Brigadier Zakariya Maimalari, and other high-ranking northern officers.
Though the coup plotters claimed the action was motivated by frustration with widespread corruption, nepotism, and electoral malpractice, it was widely perceived—particularly in the North—as an Igbo conspiracy to dominate Nigeria’s federal structure. The perception was strengthened by the fact that President Nnamdi Azikiwe, an Igbo man, was abroad at the time and not harmed, and that Major-General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi, an Igbo officer, became the Head of State.
In response to the January coup and growing resentment, a counter-coup occurred on July 29, 1966, led by northern officers, including Murtala Mohammed, Theophilus Danjuma, and Major Martin Adamu. This second coup resulted in the assassination of General Aguiyi-Ironsi and his host, Lt. Col. Francis Adekunle Fajuyi, the Military Governor of the Western Region. Lt. Colonel Yakubu Gowon, a Christian from the north, was installed as the new Head of State.
Following the July counter-coup, massive anti-Igbo pogroms broke out across northern Nigeria. From August to October 1966, tens of thousands of Igbo civilians were brutally murdered in cities like Kano, Zaria, and Kaduna, often with the complicity—or at least the indifference—of local authorities. Many survivors were mutilated or displaced, and an estimated over one million Igbos fled back to the Eastern Region.
These pogroms were one of the worst cases of ethnic cleansing in modern African history and planted the seeds of deep fear, distrust, and the belief among the Igbo that they could no longer be safe or protected within the Nigerian state. The federal government failed to provide adequate justice or restitution, further eroding any remaining faith in national unity.
Declaration of Biafra
Amid the chaos and rising ethnic hostilities, efforts at reconciliation were attempted through the Aburi Accord, a peace conference held in Ghana in January 1967. The Eastern Region, represented by Colonel Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu, agreed to a loose confederation of states. However, when the federal government, under Gowon, failed to implement the agreements reached at Aburi, the Eastern Region withdrew from further federal discussions.
On May 30, 1967, Colonel Ojukwu, then the Military Governor of the Eastern Region, officially declared the region an independent sovereign nation—the Republic of Biafra. The name “Biafra” was derived from the Bight of Biafra, a bay on the Atlantic coast.
Ojukwu cited multiple reasons for secession:
- The mass killings of Igbos in the North,
- The failure of the federal government to protect its citizens,
- The rejection of the Aburi peace accords,
- And the structural inequality and marginalization faced by the Eastern Region.
The new state of Biafra included present-day Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu, and Imo states, and parts of Delta and Rivers states. The declaration was met with popular support among the Igbo people, who had experienced systemic violence and economic exclusion.
The Nigerian federal government, under General Gowon, immediately rejected the declaration of Biafra and branded it a rebellion against the state. On July 6, 1967, federal troops launched a full-scale military campaign to crush the secession, marking the official start of the Nigerian Civil War (also known as the Biafran War).
The War Unfolds
Military Campaigns
The Nigerian Civil War officially began on July 6, 1967, when the Nigerian federal government launched a military offensive against the secessionist Republic of Biafra. This operation, named “Operation Unicord,” aimed to reclaim the Northern towns of Nsukka and Garkem, which had been occupied by Biafran forces shortly after secession.
The initial stage of the conflict witnessed surprising success by Biafran troops under the leadership of Colonel Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu, a charismatic and strategic figure. The Biafran army launched a bold offensive known as the Mid-Western Invasion in August 1967, swiftly occupying the Mid-Western Region (now parts of Edo and Delta States) and capturing the capital Benin City. The aim was to march westward toward Lagos to force a quick resolution to the war and potentially spark uprisings in other parts of Nigeria.
However, the federal government quickly reorganized. Under the command of Colonel Murtala Mohammed, Nigerian forces pushed back the Biafran troops from Benin and launched counteroffensives. By October 1967, the Biafran forces had been expelled from the Mid-West, and the federal army regained control over key areas.
From 1968 onwards, federal troops made steady advances into Biafran territory, capturing major towns and strategic locations. Notable military campaigns included:
- The Fall of Enugu (October 1967): The capital of Biafra, Enugu, fell to federal troops in October, forcing Ojukwu to relocate the Biafran government headquarters first to Umuahia and later to Owerri.
- The Capture of Port Harcourt (May 1968): This port city, Biafra’s main access point to the outside world, fell to Nigerian forces, further tightening the noose on the fledgling republic and making it nearly impossible for Biafra to receive international aid or arms by sea.
- Operation Tail-Wind (December 1969–January 1970): This final phase of the war was led by Colonel Olusegun Obasanjo, who launched a swift and decisive offensive into Biafran heartland. Biafran resistance collapsed, and Ojukwu fled to Côte d’Ivoire on January 9, 1970. His deputy, Major General Philip Effiong, formally surrendered to the Nigerian government on January 15, 1970, at Dodan Barracks in Lagos.
The war, lasting 30 months, was fought with brutality on both sides, but the federal side enjoyed superior manpower, logistics, and international support, especially from Britain and the Soviet Union. Biafra, although demonstrating remarkable ingenuity and resilience (including the production of local weapons and an air force), could not match the overwhelming force of the Nigerian military machine.
Humanitarian Crisis and Blockade
One of the darkest aspects of the Biafran War was the deliberate use of economic and food blockades as a tool of warfare. By 1968, the Nigerian government, under the guidance of General Yakubu Gowon and with strategic support from the British government, had completely sealed off Biafra’s borders — both land and sea. The goal was to starve the secessionist region into submission.
This blockade resulted in one of the worst humanitarian crises of the 20th century.
- Food, medicine, and essential supplies were blocked.
- Hospitals and clinics collapsed due to lack of medicine.
- Children died in their thousands from kwashiorkor — a severe protein deficiency.
- Relief organizations such as the Red Cross, Caritas Internationalis, and the World Council of Churches attempted airlifts, but these efforts were often hindered by Nigerian air strikes and restrictions.
Estimates suggest that between 1 and 3 million Biafran civilians, most of them women and children, died from starvation and preventable diseases. The images of severely malnourished Biafran children with bloated bellies and sunken eyes shocked the global conscience and led to the birth of modern humanitarian NGOs like Médecins Sans Frontières (Doctors Without Borders), which was founded by French doctors who had volunteered in Biafra.
Although the federal government insisted that it was pursuing a policy of “no victor, no vanquished,” the deliberate starvation campaign has been widely criticized by human rights advocates and historians as a war crime.
British complicity in the blockade has also drawn condemnation. The UK government, under Prime Minister Harold Wilson, continued to supply the Nigerian military with arms and diplomatic support despite the clear evidence of a humanitarian catastrophe. British officials reportedly feared that a Biafran victory would disrupt oil interests in Nigeria’s Niger Delta and destabilize British economic influence in West Africa.
International Involvement
Support for Nigeria
The Nigerian federal government received significant support from the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union. The UK, motivated by economic interests, particularly in Nigerian oil, provided military equipment and political backing. The Soviet Union also supplied arms and military advisors, viewing Nigeria as a strategic ally in Africa.(en.wikipedia.org)
Support for Biafra
Biafra garnered sympathy and limited support from countries like France, Israel, and some African nations, including Gabon and Ivory Coast. However, this support was insufficient to counterbalance the resources and backing Nigeria received from major powers.(en.wikipedia.org)
War Crimes and Atrocities
Asaba Massacre
One of the most heinous atrocities during the war was the Asaba Massacre in October 1967. Nigerian federal troops, under the command of Colonel Murtala Mohammed, entered the town of Asaba and, over several days, executed hundreds of male civilians. Women and girls were subjected to rape and other forms of abuse. This massacre remains a dark chapter in Nigeria’s history.(en.wikipedia.org)
Use of Starvation as a Weapon
The Nigerian government’s blockade strategy, aimed at cutting off food and medical supplies to Biafra, has been widely criticized as a deliberate use of starvation as a weapon of war. Statements from Nigerian officials at the time suggested an indifference to the humanitarian consequences, with some viewing starvation as a legitimate tactic to end the secession.(en.wikipedia.org)
Aftermath and Continued Marginalization
Economic Disenfranchisement
Following the war’s end in 1970, the Nigerian government implemented policies that economically disenfranchised the Igbo people. One such policy was the “20 Pounds Policy,” where Igbo individuals, regardless of their pre-war bank balances, were only allowed to withdraw £20 from their accounts. This policy devastated the financial standing of many Igbo families.(scirp.org, ezeibekweogechukwu.medium.com)
Abandoned Property Decree
The government also enacted the Abandoned Property Decree, which allowed for the confiscation of properties left behind by Igbos who had fled during the war. These properties were often sold or allocated to others, and efforts by original owners to reclaim them were largely unsuccessful.(en.wikipedia.org)
Political and Social Marginalization
In the decades following the war, the Igbo people have continued to face political and social marginalization. Infrastructure development in the southeastern region has lagged, and there has been a noticeable absence of Igbo representation in key federal positions. These issues have fueled feelings of disenfranchisement and have led to renewed calls for autonomy or secession by some groups.(ezeibekweogechukwu.medium.com)
Legacy and Reflection
The Biafran War remains a poignant reminder of the dangers of ethnic tensions, political instability, and the consequences of war. While Nigeria has made strides in national integration, the scars of the conflict linger, particularly among the Igbo community. Addressing historical grievances and promoting genuine reconciliation are essential steps toward building a more inclusive and united Nigeria.
For those interested in delving deeper into this topic, the following resources provide comprehensive insights:
- Nigerian Civil War – Wikipedia
- Asaba Massacre – Wikipedia
- Blockade of Biafra – Wikipedia
- 1966 Anti-Igbo Pogrom – Wikipedia
- Biafran Airlift – Wikipedia
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